Who composed in Charlemagne"s name the impressive treatise that repudiates the Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea (but which, in the end, the king prevented for religio-political reasons from circulating in his own day)? This series of essays explores in turn the liturgical background, the Latinity, attitudes towards images and the historical circumstances of the time, including relations between Charlemagne, the pope and Byzantium. Ann Freeman presents evidence for identifying Charlemagne"s spokesman as Theodulf, a Visigoth and refugee from the Moorish invasions of Spain, and reveals the impressive extent of the learning he brought with him - which lead eventually to his appointment as Bishop of Orleans.